ปัญญาวิมุตติ

Brain activity and meditation

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This article is about the specific effects of meditation on the human brain. For general information about meditation, see Meditation.


Highlighted region shows the anterior cingulate cortex, a region of the brain shown to be activated during meditation.
Meditation and its effect on the central nervous system has become a focus of collaborative research in neuroscience, psychology and neurobiology during the latter 20th century. Research on meditation sought to define and characterize various practices. Meditation’s effect on the brain can be broken up into two categories: state changes and trait changes, respectively alterations in brain activities during the act of meditating and changes that are the outcome of long-term practice.
Mindfulness meditation is frequently studied, a Buddhist meditation approach found in Zen and Vipassana.[1][2] Jon Kabat-Zinn describes mindfulness meditation as a complete, unbiased attention to the current moment.[3]
Contents  [hide] 
1 Changes in brain state
1.1 Electroencephalography
1.2 Neuroimaging
1.2.1 Topographical findings
1.2.2 Study on meditation and emotion
2 Changes in brain due to prolonged practice of meditation
2.1 Electroencephalography
2.2 Neuroimaging
2.3 Clinical applications
2.3.1 Attention
2.3.2 Mood
2.3.3 Need for more research
3 Popular literature
3.1 Positive portrayal
3.2 Rebuttal
4 References
Changes in brain state[edit]

Electroencephalography[edit]
Electroencephalography (EEG) has been used in many studies as a primary method for evaluating the meditating brain. Electroencephalography uses electrical leads placed all over the scalp to measure the collective electrical activity of the cerebral cortex. Specifically, EEG measures the electric fields of large groups of neurons. EEG has the benefit of excellent temporal resolution and is able to measure aggregate activity of portions or the entire cortex down to the millisecond scale. Unlike other imaging based methods, EEG does not have good spatial resolution and is more appropriately used to evaluate the running spontaneous activity of the cortex. This spontaneous activity is classified into four main classifications based on the frequency of the activity, ranging from low frequency delta waves (< 4 Hz) commonly found during sleep to beta waves (13–30 Hz) associated with an awake and alert brain. In between these two extremes are theta waves (4–8 Hz) and alpha waves (8–12 Hz).
Many studies on mindfulness meditation, assessed in a review by Cahn and Polich in 2006, have linked lower frequency alpha and theta waves to meditation.[4] Much older studies report more specific findings, such as decreased alpha blocking and increased frontal lobe specific theta activity.[5] Alpha blocking is a phenomenon where the active brain, normally presenting beta wave activity, cannot as easily switch to alpha wave activity often involved in memory recall. These findings would suggest that in a meditative state a person is more relaxed but maintains a sharp awareness. Two large, recent comprehensive review works, however, point to poor control and statistical analyses in these early studies and comment that it can only be said with confidence that increased alpha and theta wave activity exists.[4][6]


A statue of Buddha meditating.
Neuroimaging[edit]
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is another highly utilized methodology for studying state changes in meditating brains. fMRI detects subtle increases in blood flow to areas of the brain with higher metabolic activity. Thus these areas of increased metabolic activity indicate which regions of the brain are currently being used to process whatever stimuli presented. Counter to EEG, the advantage of fMRI is its spatial resolution, with the ability to produce detailed spatial maps of brain activity. It suffers, however, in temporal resolution and cannot measure progressive activity, like the EEG, with much detail.
Topographical findings[edit]
As a relatively new technology, fMRI has only recently been used to assess brain state changes during meditation. Recent studies have shown heightened activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, frontal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, specifically in the dorsal medial prefrontal area during Vipassana meditation.[7] Similarly, the cingulate cortex and frontal cortex areas were shown to have increased activity during Zen meditation.[8] Both studies comment on the possibility that these findings could indicate some state of heightened voluntary control over attention during mindfulness meditation. Review works by Cahn and Chiesa state that these results indicate consistency in meditation’s effect on these regions of the brain, citing a multitude of other studies spanning other meditative disciplines, but mention the need for further investigation with better controls.[4][6]
Study on meditation and emotion[edit]
The review by Cahn also notes findings describing a heightened emotional state of meditators. A more complex study, conducted in 2008 by Lutz et al., focused on emotional response during meditation.[9] This investigation involved the creation of a “compassion meditation” state by novice and experienced meditators and testing the meditators response to emotionally charged sounds. fMRI results indicated heightened activity in the cingulate cortex but also in the amygdala, temporo-parietal junction, and right posterior superior temporal sulcus in response to the emotional sounds. The authors of this study believe this indicates greater sensitivity to emotional expression and positive emotion due to the neural circuitry activated.[9]
Changes in brain due to prolonged practice of meditation[edit]

Electroencephalography[edit]
Similar to research into state changes in brain function, older studies make more specific claims about trait changes in meditators versus non-meditators. Changes to the alpha wave were indicated to be a trait, as well as state, phenomena. Studies have reported an increase in the specific frequencies expressed in the alpha range, increased alpha band power, and an overall slowing (reduction in frequency) in EEG activity in experienced meditators versus less experienced meditators while meditating.[5][10] The alpha blocking phenomena, observed as a state change in brain function, was investigated as a possible trait change as well. One study that examined a variety of meditation techniques tried to show that alpha blocking was affected by the long term practice of meditation by testing response to auditory stimuli.[11] Review works, however, comment on inconsistent findings as well as a lack of repeated results in this, and other studies. They further remark that, similar to observations in brain state changes, only general assertions can be made about brain trait changes: some change in the electroencephalographic profile exists but with some inconsistency.[4][12] It is also important to note that these trait changes were observed during meditation, and although it does indicate that a practitioner’s electroencephalographic profile is modified by the practice of meditation, these EEG studies have not yet shown changes in non-meditating brains, even of experienced meditators.


Red region of the brain shows the hippocampus which had been shown to have heightened activity during meditation by experienced meditators.
Neuroimaging[edit]
Brain trait changes have also been observed in neuroimaging studies, most often employing fMRI. A long-term increase in activity was discovered in the prefrontal cortex, the right anterior insula, and right hippocampus, suggesting a heightened ability to control attention and awareness.[13][14] The review by Chiesa attribute these findings to the direct attention to and awareness of bodily sensations.[6] One neuroimaging study also found some evidence for protection against the natural reduction in grey matter volume with aging, which could suggest a better attentiveness in aging meditators versus non-meditators.[15]
Clinical applications[edit]
Attention[edit]
A host of other studies have investigated the use of meditation as a psychotherapy to induce trait changes and treat various diseases and disorders. Since state and trait change investigations point to a heightened control of attention, one study attempted to improve this ability in patients characterized by a reduced aptitude for attention and focus. This study, by Harrison et al. in 2004, implemented a 6-week yoga-based mindfulness meditation therapy for adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and reported significant reductions in the symptoms of these patients.[16] Several other studies also reported findings that indicate an increased attentional ability in a clinical setting, specifically noting an ability to maintain attention despite unexpected stimuli.[17][18]
Mood[edit]
Brain activity in the amygdala, cingulate, and frontal cortex areas seems to suggest that meditation has an impact on mood and emotion as previously discussed. Clinical studies have attempted to deploy this effect to treat emotional disorders and several studies have showed significant success in using mindfulness meditation to treat depression.[19][20] These studies demonstrated that meditation was statistically effective at combating depression as well as preventing it. Another similar study cited success in reducing depression relapse, especially in patients that have relapsed three or more times.[21] Reviews of these findings, and others, are more skeptical and offer other explanations for the observed results.[22] Across the board, reviews voice a need for more studies before meditation can backed scientifically as a therapy for depression.[4][6][22]
Need for more research[edit]
Many other clinical applications such as anxiety disorders, stress, as well as physiological disorders have been investigated. Results tend to be inconsistent and not always repeatable. However, most studies that look at trait changes, whether applied clinically or not, on a general level reinforce the consistent state changes that have been observed.[4][6] This would seem to suggest a neuroplastic mechanism that reinforces these state changes over time with continued meditation. Both Cahn and Chiesa are adamant about the need for further and more exhaustive research before more conclusions can be made.[4][6]
Popular literature[edit]

Positive portrayal[edit]
Besides scientific literature, some authors have written of the promising research on meditation in books targeted for general audiences. Once such book, Buddha’s Brain by Rick Hanson, PhD shares the exciting current scientific research and investigations into meditation.[23] Hanson, a neuroscientist and researcher, explains to readers the scientific studies in plain language and discuss the impact of the results. Hanson’s main argument is that positive emotions, like love can be strengthened through meditation in a neuroplastic manner, citing dozens of scientific studies to support this claim.[23] Hanson’s viewpoint is representative of a larger popular movement to study and embrace Eastern phenomena including meditation in the Western world.
Rebuttal[edit]
Critics, like Owen Flanagan, PhD, believe that Hanson, and those like him, are over extending the results of current scientific studies.[citation needed] In his book, Bodhisattva’s Brain: Buddhism Naturalized, Flanagan presents a more conservative viewpoint of current scientific research and cautions readers against the seemingly exciting results of recent studies.[24] Flanagan does not believe current science supports the idea that positive emotion can be strengthened in the same way that stroke victims can recover use of limbs with use.[24] Flanagan does acknowledge that meditation may be beneficial in some way, but the mechanism of how meditation impacts the brain is still clouded.[24] Flanagan and Hanson use many of the same scientific studies to attempt to support their differing viewpoint, but both authors identify the need and importance of future studies investigating meditation.
References[edit]

Jump up ^ Mizuno, Kogen (1972). Essentials of Buddhism. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Company.
Jump up ^ Ahir, D.C. (1999). Vipassana : A Universal Buddhist Meditation Technique. New Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.
Jump up ^ Kabat-Zinn, Jon (1998). Wherever You Go, There You Are : Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. New York: Hyperion.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Cahn BR, Polich J (2006). "Meditation states and traits : EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. PMID 16536641.
^ Jump up to: a b Kasamatsu KH, Hirai T (1966). "An electroencephalographic study on the zen meditation (Zazen)". Folia Psychiatrica et Neurologica Japonica 20: 315–336.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Chiesa A, Serretti, A (2010). "A systematic review of neurobiological and clinical features of mindfulness meditations". Psychological Medicine 40 (8): 1239–1252. doi:10.1017/S0033291709991747.
Jump up ^ Holzel BK, Ott U, Hempel H, Hackl A, Wolf K, Stark R, Vaitl D (2007). "Differential engagement of anterior cingulate and adjacent medial frontal cortex in adept meditators and non-meditators". Neuroscience Letters 421: 16–21.
Jump up ^ Pagnoni G, Cekic M, Guo Y (2008). "‘ Thinking about not- thinking’: neural correlates of conceptual processing during Zen meditation". PLoS ONE 3: e3083.
^ Jump up to: a b Lutz A, Brefczynski-Lewis J, Johnstone T, Davidson RJ (2008). "Regulation of the Neural Circuitry of Emotion by Compassion Meditation: Effects of Meditative Expertise". PLoS ONE 3 (3): e1897. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001897. PMC 2267490. PMID 18365029. Retrieved 2011-09-06.
Jump up ^ Stigsby B, Rodenberg JC, Moth HB (1981). "Electroencephalographic findings during mantra meditation (transcendental meditation). A controlled, quantitative study of experienced meditators". Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 51: 434–442.
Jump up ^ Becker DE, Shapiro D (1981). "Physiological responses to clicks during Zen, yoga, and TM meditation". Psychophysiology 18: 694–699.
Jump up ^ Andersen J (2000). "Meditation meets behavioural medicine: The story of experimental research on meditation". Journal of Consciousness Studies 7: 17–73.
Jump up ^ Holzel BK, Ott U, Gard T, Hempel H, Weygandt M, Morgen K, Vaitl D (2008). "Investigation of mindfulness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometry". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 3 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1093/scan/nsm038. PMC 2569815. PMID 19015095.
Jump up ^ Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Wasserman RH, Gray JR, Greve DN, Treadway MT, McGarvey M, Quinn BT, Dusek JA, Benson H, Rauch SL, Moore CI, Fischl B (2005). "Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness". NeuroReport 16 (17): 1893–1897. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000186598.66243.19. PMC 1361002. PMID 16272874.
Jump up ^ Pagnoni G, Cekic M (2007). "Age effects on gray matter volume and attentional performance in Zen meditation". Neurobiology of Aging 28 (10): 1623–1627. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.06.008. PMID 17655980.
Jump up ^ Harrison L, Manoch R, Rubia K (2004). "Sahaja yoga meditation as a family treatment programme for children with attention deficit- hyperactivity disorder". Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 9: 479–497.
Jump up ^ Jha AP, Krompinger J, Baime MJ (2007). "Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention". Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience 7: 109–119.
Jump up ^ Chambers R, Lo BCY, Allen NB (2008). "The impact of intensive mindfulness training on attentional control, cognitive style and affect". Cognitive Therapy and Research 32: 303–322.
Jump up ^ Ma SH, Teasdale JD (2004). "Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: Replication and exploration of differential relapse prevention effects". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 72: 31–40.
Jump up ^ Segal, Z. V. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford Press.
Jump up ^ Teasdale JD, Segal ZV, Williams JMG, Ridgeway VA, Soulsby JM, Lau MA (2000). "Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68: 615–623.
^ Jump up to: a b Young, SN (2011). "Biologic effects of mindfulness meditation: growing insights into neurobiologic aspects of the prevention of depression". Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 36 (2): 75–77.
^ Jump up to: a b Hanson, Rick (2009). Buddha’s Brain: The Practical Neuroscience of Happiness, Love, and Wisdom. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publication, INC.
^ Jump up to: a b c Flanagan, Owen (2011). Bodhisattva’s Brain: Buddhism Naturalized. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.